countries in the world, even though it also claims 120 square miles of territorial seas. The interiors of the islands vary from steep mountains to low hills. The 2017 census of the Comoros concluded that Ngazidja, the largest island of the Comoros, was the most recently-formed, evident by its rocky soil.

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Mwali, with its capital at Fomboni, is the smallest of the four major islands. Ndzuani, whose capital is Mutsamudu, has a distinctive triangular shape caused by three mountain ranges — Shisiwani, Nioumakele and Jimilime. The Comoros archipelago was formed by volcanism. Mount Karthala, one of the most active volcanoes on Earth located on Ngazidja, is the archipelago's highest point at 7,746 feet. It features the Comoros' largest area of rainforest. Mount Karthala erupted in 1991, 2005, and 2006. In the April 2005 eruption, which lasted two days, 40,000 citizens were evacuated.

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The Comoros claim to a series of scattered islands in the Indian Ocean — Glorioso Islands, comprised of Grande Glorieuse, Île du Lys, Wreck Rock, South Rock; and three unnamed islets, is one of France's overseas districts. The Glorioso Islands were administered by the colonial Comoros before 1975, and are therefore sometimes considered part of the Comoros Archipelago. Banc du Geyser, a former island in the Comoros archipelago, now submerged, is geographically located in the Îles Éparses, but was annexed by Madagascar in 1976 as an unclaimed territory. The Comoros and France still view the Banc du Geyser as part of the Glorioso Islands and part of its particular exclusive economic zone.

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Climate, forests

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The climate is generally tropical and mild, and the two major seasons are distinguishable by their precipitation. The temperature reaches an average of 84-86 degrees Fahrenheit in March, the hottest month in the monsoon season, whichextends from November to April. The average low is 66 degrees in the cool, dry season, which occurs from May to October. The Comoros constitute an eco-region in their own right with a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.69/10, ranking it 33rd globally out of 172 countries.

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In 1952 a specimen of the coelacanth fish was re-discovered off the Comoros coast. The 66 million-year-old species was thought to be extinct until its first recorded appearance in 1938 off the South African coast. Between 1938 and 1975, 84 specimens were caught and recorded.

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Government, legal system

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Politics of the Comoros operates in the framework of a federal presidential republic. The president the head of a multi-party system of government. The constitution of the Union of the Comoros was ratified by referendum on Dec. 23 2001. It had previously been considered a military dictatorship, and the transfer of power in May 2006 was a watershed moment — the first peaceful transfer in Comorian history. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration in governance, a commitment to democracy, human rights, and several specific enumerated rights for all Comorians. Each island, according to Title II of the Constitution, has a great amount of autonomy in the Union, including having their own constitution, president, and parliament. The presidency of the Union rotates between the islands.

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The Comorian legal system rests on Islamic law, an inherited French legal code, and customary law. Village elders, kadis or civilian courts settle most disputes. The judiciary is independent of the legislative and the executive. The Supreme Court acts as a Constitutional Council in resolving constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As the high court of Justice, the Supreme Court also arbitrates in cases where the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by the council of each island.

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Foreign relations, military

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The Comoros is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Arab League, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Indian Ocean Commission and the African Development Bank. On April 10, 2008, the Comoros became the 179th nation to accept the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The military resources of the Comoros comprised of a small standing army and a 500-member police force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains the presence of a few senior officers in the Comoros at government request, as well as a small maritime base and a Foreign Legion Detachment on Mayotte.

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Economy

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The level of poverty in the Comoros is high, but declined by about 10 percent between 2014 and 2018, and living conditions generally improved. Economic inequality remains widespread, with a major gap between rural and urban areas. Remittances through the sizable Comorian diaspora form a substantial part of the country's GDP and have contributed to increases in living standards. According to ILO's ILOSTAT statistical database, between 1991 and 2019 the unemployment rate as a percent of the total labor force ranged from 4.38 percent to 4.3 percent. An October 2005 paper by the Comoros Ministry of Planning and Regional Development reported that registered unemployment rate is 14.3 percent, distributed very unevenly among and within the islands, but with marked incidence in urban areas.

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Agriculture contributes 40 percent to GDP and provides most of the exports. In 2019, more than 56 percent of the labor force was employed in agriculture, with 29 percent employed in industry and 14 percent in services. The islands' agricultural sector is based on the export of spices, including vanilla, cinnamon, and cloves. The Comoros is the world's largest producer of ylang-ylang, a plant whose extracted essential oil is used in the perfume industry. About 80 percent of the world's supply comes from the Comoros. 

In 2004 the Comoros' GDP growth was a low 1.9 percent and real GDP per capita continued to decline. These declines are explained by factors including declining investment, drops in consumption, rising inflation, and an increase in trade imbalance due in part to lowered cash crop prices, especially vanilla. Fiscal policy is constrained by erratic fiscal revenues, a bloated civil service wage bill, and a high external debt. The Comoros, which is is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa, has goals to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate.

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Demographics, people, languages

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With fewer than a million people, the Comoros is one of the least populous countries in the world, but is also one of the most densely populated with an average of 275 inhabitants per square mile. In 2001, 34 percent of the popula- tion was considered urban, and is expected to grow since rural population growth is negative, while overall population growth is still relatively high. Nearly half the population of the Comoros is under the age of 15. Major urban centers include Moroni, Mitsamihuli, Fumbuni, Mutsamudu, Domoni, and Fomboni. The Comorian diaspora extends to France, where between 200,000 and 350,000 Comorians live.

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The islands of the Comoros share mostly African-Arab origins. Minorities include Malagasy (Christian) and Indian (mostly Ismaili). Recent immigrants include Chinese in Grande Comore (especially Moroni), and though most French left after independence in 1975, a small Creole community descended from France, Madagascar, and Réunion. The most common languages in the Comoros are the Comorian languages, collectively known as Shikomori. They are related to Swahili, and its four different variants — Shingazidja, Shimwali, Shindzuani, and Shimaore, which are spoken on all four islands. Arabic and Latin scripts are both used, Arabic being the more widely used. An official orthography was recently developed for the Latin script. Arabic and French are also official languages, along with Comorian. Arabic is widely known as a second language, being the language of Quranic teaching. French is the administrative language and the language of most non-Quranic formal education.

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Education

Almost all children attend Quranic schools, usually before, although increasingly in tandem with regular schooling. Children are taught about the Qur'an, and memorize it, and learn the Arabic script. Most parents prefer their children to attend Islamic schools before moving on to the French-based schooling system. Although the state sector is plagued by a lack of resources and low-paid teachers, there are numerous private and community schools of relatively good standard. The national curriculum, apart from a few years during post-independence, has been largely based on the French system because resources are French and most Comorians hope to go on to further education in France.

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There have recently been moves to Comorianise the syllabus and integrate the two systems --- the formal and the Quran schools — into one, thus moving away from the secular educational system inherited from France. Pre-colon- ization education systems in Comoros focused on necessary skills such as agriculture, caring for livestock and completing household tasks. Religious education also taught children the virtues of Islam. The education system underwent a transformation during colonization in the early 1900s which brought secular education based on the French system. This was mainly for children of the elite.

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After Comoros gained independence, the education system changed again. Funding for teachers' salaries was lost, and many went on strike. Thus, the public education system was not functioning between 1997 and 2001. The education system has also undergone a democratization and options exist for those other than the elite. Enrollment has also grown. Prior to 2000, students seeking a university education had to attend school outside of the country, however in the early 2000s a university was created in the country. This served to help economic growth and to fight the "flight" of many educated people who were not returning to the islands to work. About 57 percent of the population is literate in the Latin script while more than 90 percent are literate in the Arabic script. 

Culture, music

Traditionally, women on Ndzuani wear red and white patterned garments called shiromani, while on Ngazidja and Mwali colorful shawls called leso are worn. Many women apply a paste of ground sandalwood and coral called msinzano to their faces. Traditional male clothing is a long white shirt known as a nkandu, and a bonnet called a kofia. Comorian society has a bilateral descent system. Lineage membership and inheritance of immovable goods (land, housing) is matrilineal, passed in the maternal line, similar to many Bantu peoples who are also matrilineal, while other goods and patronymics are passed in the male line. However, there are differences between the islands, the matrilineal element being stronger on Ngazidja.

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Twarab music, imported from Zanzibar in the early 20th century, remains the most influential genre on the islands and is popular at ada marriages. It is historically linked to both East Africa and France, and now has a strong Malagasy influence. Zanzibar's taarab music, however, remains the most influential genre on the islands, and a Comorian version called twarab is popular.

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